Alexander the Great was an ancient Macedonian ruler and one of history’s greatest military minds who, as King of Macedonia and Persia, established the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen. In the meantime (winter 333–332) the Persians had counterattacked by land in Asia Minor—where they were defeated by Antigonus, the satrap of Greater Phrygia—and by sea, recapturing a number of cities and islands. Alexander was victorious in the two key battles at Issus and Gaugamela, and Darius was murdered by conspirators soon afterward. The tyrants were expelled and (in contrast to Macedonian policy in Greece) democracies were installed. By now it was clear that Alexander was a shrewd, ruthless and brilliant military leader—in fact, he never lost a battle in his life. His advance eastward was now rapid. From Alexandria he marched along the coast to Paraetonium and from there inland to visit the celebrated oracle of the god Amon (at Sīwah); the difficult journey was later embroidered with flattering legends. Conqueror and king of Macedonia, Alexander the Great was born on July 20, 356 B.C., in Pella, in the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia. Alexander’s march through Gedrosia proved disastrous; waterless desert and shortage of food and fuel caused great suffering, and many, especially women and children, perished in a sudden monsoon flood while encamped in a wadi. Alexander was … This army was to prove remarkable for its balanced combination of arms. He ...read more, Alexander Hamilton Stephens (1812-1883) served as vice president of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War (1861-65). His body, diverted to Egypt by Ptolemy, the later king, was eventually placed in a golden coffin in Alexandria. He was an impassioned champion of a strong federal government, and played a key role in defending ...read more, 1. From Issus Alexander marched south into Syria and Phoenicia, his object being to isolate the Persian fleet from its bases and so to destroy it as an effective fighting force. Two years later he commanded the left wing at the Battle of Chaeronea, in which Philip defeated the allied Greek states, and displayed personal courage in breaking the Sacred Band of Thebes, an elite military corps composed of 150 pairs of lovers. The evidence is carefully reviewed by Daniel Ogden in an article in the volume Alexander the Great: A New History (edd. One event took place at Hydaspes which devastated Alexander: the death of his beloved horse, Bucephalus. Next lesson. His mother, Sisygambis, was so upset she disowned him and adopted Alexander as her son. Instead of taking the direct route down the river to Babylon, he made across northern Mesopotamia toward the Tigris, and Darius, learning of this move from an advance force sent under Mazaeus to the Euphrates crossing, marched up the Tigris to oppose him. Crushing the mountain tribe of the Ouxians, he now pressed on over the Zagros range into Persia proper and, successfully turning the Pass of the Persian Gates, held by the satrap Ariobarzanes, he entered Persepolis and Pasargadae. Author of. Rathbone Professor Emeritus of Ancient History and Classical Archaeology, University of Liverpool. How far the rigour that from now onward Alexander displayed against his governors represents exemplary punishment for gross maladministration during his absence and how far the elimination of men he had come to distrust (as in the case of Philotas and Parmenio) is debatable; but the ancient sources generally favourable to him comment adversely on his severity. In this seminal biography, Paul Cartledge, one of the world's foremost scholars of ancient Greece, gives us the most reliable and intimate portrait of … How much Alexander knew of India beyond the Hyphasis (probably the modern Beas) is uncertain; there is no conclusive proof that he had heard of the Ganges. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Following his father’s assassination Alexander succeeded him to the Macedon throne and the 20 year old King ruthlessly murdered all of his rivals to the crown. After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. What an excellent horse do they lose, for want of address and boldness to manage him! In fact, he is widely considered one of history’s … to King Philip II and Queen Olympias—although legend had it his father was none other than Zeus, the ruler of the Greek gods. From Phrada, Alexander pressed on during the winter of 330–329 up the valley of the Helmand River, through Arachosia, and over the mountains past the site of modern Kābul into the country of the Paropamisadae, where he founded Alexandria by the Caucasus. Philip II was an impressive military man in his own right. This ruthless action excited widespread horror but strengthened Alexander’s position relative to his critics and those whom he regarded as his father’s men. By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men they’d follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. Crossing the Elburz Mountains to the Caspian, he seized Zadracarta in Hyrcania and received the submission of a group of satraps and Persian notables, some of whom he confirmed in their offices; in a diversion westward, perhaps to modern Āmol, he reduced the Mardi, a mountain people who inhabited the Elburz Mountains. In 336, however, on Philip’s assassination, Alexander, acclaimed by the army, succeeded without opposition. Alexander the Great Died Mysteriously at 32. Our mission is to provide a free, world-class education to anyone, anywhere. The Phoenician cities Marathus and Aradus came over quietly, and Parmenio was sent ahead to secure Damascus and its rich booty, including Darius’s war chest. They crossed the Hellespont, a narrow strait between the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and faced Persian and Greek forces at the Granicus River. Alexander the Great leading his forces against the retreating Persian army led by Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333. The fall in the level of the sea was interpreted as a mark of divine favour by Alexander’s flatterers, including the historian Callisthenes. While in Babylon, Alexander became ill after a prolonged banquet and drinking bout, and on June 13, 323, he died at age 33. Wanting to unite the Persians and Macedonians and create a new race loyal only to him, he ordered many of his officers to marry Persian princesses at a mass wedding. He was taught by Aristotle but had famous run-ins with other philosophers. By the time he died 13 years later, Alexander had built an empire that stretched from Greece all the way to India. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. Please select which sections you would like to print: While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. His vast empire stretched east into India. Greek thought drew no very decided line of demarcation between god and man, for legend offered more than one example of men who, by their achievements, acquired divine status. Alexander now proceeded farther with the policy of replacing senior officials and executing defaulting governors on which he had already embarked before leaving India. From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of the New ...read more, In 336 B.C., Alexander the Great became the leader of the Greek kingdom of Macedonia. WARNING: SPOILERS.WATCH IN 1080p.This is a special video for my subscriber who supported my channel. There is no reason to assume that his demand had any political background (divine status gave its possessor no particular rights in a Greek city); it was rather a symptom of growing megalomania and emotional instability. Now We May Know Why. Diadochi and the Hellenistic Period. In summer 324 Alexander attempted to solve another problem, that of the wandering mercenaries, of whom there were thousands in Asia and Greece, many of them political exiles from their own cities. But he’d never live to see it happen. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. READ MORE: Alexander the Great Died Mysteriously at 32. Recrossing the Hindu Kush, probably by Bamiyan and the Ghorband Valley, Alexander divided his forces. The Macedonian army resented Alexander’s attempt to change their culture and many mutinied. Craterus, a high-ranking officer, already had been sent off with the baggage and siege train, the elephants, and the sick and wounded, together with three battalions of the phalanx, by way of the Mulla Pass, Quetta, and Kandahar into the Helmand Valley; from there he was to march through Drangiana to rejoin the main army on the Amanis (modern Minab) River in Carmania. In November 332 he reached Egypt. Historyofmacedonia.org. Leaving Parmenio in Syria, Alexander advanced south without opposition until he reached Gaza on its high mound; there bitter resistance halted him for two months, and he sustained a serious shoulder wound during a sortie. As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. The world is a thoroughly connected place today with technology serving as instant messenger between people living in far off places. But if you see something that doesn't look right, click here to contact us! Local opposition led Nearchus to set sail in September (325), and he was held up for three weeks until he could pick up the northeast monsoon in late October. In 336 B.C., Alexander’s father Philip was assassinated by his bodyguard Pausanias. He would build an empire on the back of his motto, “there is nothing impossible to him who will try.”. He planned to lead part of his forces back by land, while the rest in perhaps 100 to 150 ships under the command of Nearchus, a Cretan with naval experience, made a voyage of exploration along the Persian Gulf. Some historians believe Alexander killed his general in a fit of drunkenness—a persistent problem that plagued him through much of his life. After conquering cities, Alexander the Great would name them after himself. The vast Eurasian empire that Alexander the Great (356–323 B.C.) From Gordium he pushed on to Ancyra (modern Ankara) and thence south through Cappadocia and the Cilician Gates (modern Külek Boğazi); a fever held him up for a time in Cilicia. Free shipping on many items | Browse your favorite brands | affordable prices. Intelligence on both sides was faulty, and Alexander was already encamped by Myriandrus (near modern İskenderun, Turkey) when he learned that Darius was astride his line of communications at Issus, north of Alexander’s position (autumn 333). San Jose State University. His advance through Swāt and Gandhāra was marked by the storming of the almost impregnable pinnacle of Aornos, the modern Pir-Sar, a few miles west of the Indus and north of the Buner River, an impressive feat of siegecraft. Crossing the Hindu Kush northward over the Khawak Pass (11,650 feet [3,550 metres]), Alexander brought his army, despite food shortages, to Drapsaca (sometimes identified with modern Banu [Andarab], probably farther north at Qunduz); outflanked, Bessus fled beyond the Oxus (modern Amu Darya), and Alexander, marching west to Bactra-Zariaspa (modern Balkh [Wazirabad] in Afghanistan), appointed loyal satraps in Bactria and Aria. As Mazaeus’s appointment indicated, Alexander’s views on the empire were changing. From age 13 to 16 he was taught by Aristotle, who inspired him with an interest in philosophy, medicine, and scientific investigation, but he was later to advance beyond his teacher’s narrow precept that non-Greeks should be treated as slaves. Livius.org. On his reaching the oracle in its oasis, the priest gave him the traditional salutation of a pharaoh, as son of Amon; Alexander consulted the god on the success of his expedition but revealed the reply to no one. Alexander’s father, Philip II of Macedon, hired Aristotle, one of history’s greatest philosophers,, to educate the 13-year-old prince. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. The Death Of Alexander The Great. In early summer 327 Alexander left Bactria with a reinforced army under a reorganized command. His altars have vanished and the names of the cities which he founded have been changed. The Battle of Issus. Subscribe for fascinating stories connecting the past to the present. God used Daniel to tell the future about Alexander the Great. Following up Nearchus’s voyage, he now founded an Alexandria at the mouth of the Tigris and made plans to develop sea communications with India, for which an expedition along the Arabian coast was to be a preliminary. Alexander’s favourite military tactic was the phalanx. Ring in the new year with a Britannica Membership, Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-the-Great, History World - History of Alexander The Great, The Mariner's Museum and Park - Ages of Exploration - Biography of Alexander the Great, JewishEncyclopedia.com - Biography of Alexander The Great, Social Studies for Kids - Biography of Alexander the Great, Livius - Biography of Alexander the Great, PBS LearningMedia - The Rise of Alexander the Great, Ancient History Encyclopedia - Biography of Alexander the Great, Alexander the Great - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11), Alexander the Great - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up). In spring 330 Alexander marched north into Media and occupied its capital. Livius.org. to its conquest by Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent civilization in the Mediterranean world. The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from “Hellazein,” which means, “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks.” Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced. On finding the army adamant, Alexander agreed to turn back. Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessaloníki, Greece]—died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-Ḥillah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336–323 bce), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic world of territorial kingdoms. The struggle turned into a Persian rout and Darius fled, leaving his family in Alexander’s hands; the women were treated with chivalrous care. Left in charge of Macedonia in 340 during Philip’s attack on Byzantium, Alexander defeated the Maedi, a Thracian people. The film's original screenplay derived in part from the book Alexander the Great, published in 1973 by the University of Oxford historian Robin Lane Fox. Be on the lookout for your Britannica newsletter to get trusted stories delivered right to your inbox. In Aria he reduced Satibarzanes, who had offered submission only to revolt, and he founded Alexandria of the Arians (modern Herāt). This allowed for Hellenistic culture to become widespread. The march was attended with much fighting and heavy, pitiless slaughter; at the storming of one town of the Malli near the Hydraotes (Ravi) River, Alexander received a severe wound which left him weakened. In the battle that followed, Alexander won a decisive victory. But for long ages, the deeds of the great "Secunder," as they called him, lived in the memory of the Indians. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. His father, Philip, was interested in cultivating a refined future king and so hired Lysimachus of Acarnania to teach the boy reading, writing, and to play the lyre. Once he’d cleaned house, Alexander left to follow in his father’s footsteps and continue Macedonia’s world domination. Shortly afterward, however, Callisthenes was held to be privy to a conspiracy among the royal pages and was executed (or died in prison; accounts vary); resentment of this action alienated sympathy from Alexander within the Peripatetic school of philosophers, with which Callisthenes had close connections. Crossing the Oxus, he sent his general Ptolemy in pursuit of Bessus, who had meanwhile been overthrown by the Sogdian Spitamenes. His death—and the bloody infighting for control that happened afterwards—unraveled the empire he’d fought so hard to create. Much work fell on the lightarmed Cretan and Macedonian archers, Thracians, and the Agrianian javelin men. © 2021 A&E Television Networks, LLC. There he broke the opposition of the Scythian nomads by his use of catapults and, after defeating them in a battle on the north bank of the river, pursued them into the interior. Between 326 and 324 over a third of his satraps were superseded and six were put to death, including the Persian satraps of Persis, Susiana, Carmania, and Paraetacene; three generals in Media, including Cleander, the brother of Coenus (who had died a little earlier), were accused of extortion and summoned to Carmania, where they were arrested, tried, and executed. Alexander, the King of Macedonia and one of the greatest army leaders in the history of warfare, conquers much of the known world. It was directed by Oliver Stone and starred Colin Farrell. Before continuing his pursuit of Darius, who had retreated into Bactria, he assembled all the Persian treasure and entrusted it to Harpalus, who was to hold it at Ecbatana as chief treasurer. Heckel and Tritle, 2009) -- bearing out … But in pitched battle the striking force was the cavalry, and the core of the army, should the issue still remain undecided after the cavalry charge, was the infantry phalanx, 9,000 strong, armed with 13-foot spears and shields, and the 3,000 men of the royal battalions, the hypaspists. Not one to take “no” for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. He had grown up to the idea. Although king of ancient Macedonia for less than 13 years, Alexander the Great changed the course of history. Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander traveled to the desert to consult the oracle of Ammon, a god of supposed good counsel. Alexander the Great is a figure who is larger than life. The provinces became independent kingdoms, and the generals, following Antigonus’s lead in 306, took the title of king. It’s unclear if he died from battle wounds or of old age, but Alexander named the city of Bucephala after him. Updates? The issue came to a head at Opis (324), when Alexander’s decision to send home Macedonian veterans under Craterus was interpreted as a move toward transferring the seat of power to Asia. He at once executed the princes of Lyncestis, alleged to be behind Philip’s murder, along with all possible rivals and the whole of the faction opposed to him. At Phrada in Drangiana (either near modern Nad-e ʿAli in Seistan or farther north at Farah), he at last took steps to destroy Parmenio and his family. Shortly afterward, father and son were reconciled and Alexander returned, but his position as heir was jeopardized. Alexander pursued the defeated Persian forces for 35 miles to Arbela, but Darius escaped with his Bactrian cavalry and Greek mercenaries into Media. In 333 B.C., Alexander and his men encountered a massive Persian army led by King Darius III near the town of Issus in southern Turkey. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Aristotle sparked and fostered Alexander’s interest in literature, science, medicine and philosophy. In spring 334 he crossed the Dardanelles, leaving Antipater, who had already faithfully served his father, as his deputy in Europe with over 13,000 men; he himself commanded about 30,000 foot and over 5,000 cavalry, of whom nearly 14,000 were Macedonians and about 7,000 allies sent by the Greek League. Meanwhile, a rumour of his death had precipitated a revolt of Theban democrats; other Greek states favoured Thebes, and the Athenians, urged on by Demosthenes, voted help. This is precisely what happened to Alexander's kingdom. at age 32. Philip II’s military reforms were crucial to Alexander’s success. Later the incident was to contribute to the story that he was the son of Zeus and, thus, to his “deification.” In spring 331 he returned to Tyre, appointed a Macedonian satrap for Syria, and prepared to advance into Mesopotamia. … I could manage this horse better than others do. Philip, Alexander's father, bought a horse called Bucephalus for the exorbitant price of 13 talents (1 talent = 27 kg of gold), but the rambunctious animal bucked all comers. That brief but thorough empire-building campaign changed the world: It spread ...read more, The Great Society was an ambitious series of policy initiatives, legislation and programs spearheaded by President Lyndon B. Johnson with the main goals of ending poverty, reducing crime, abolishing inequality and improving the environment. 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